By
Biagio
Bossone, Marco Cattaneo, Luciano Gallino, Enrico Grazzini, Stefano Sylos Labini
We
propose that the governments of the crisis-hit countries of the Eurozone stimulate internal demand by issuing and allocating
Tax Credit Certificates (TCC) and Tax-Backed Bonds (TBB) to be used as quasi monies.
As state-issued monetary instruments, these bonds and certificates would be complementary
to the euro and add to the domestic spending power without generating new debt.
Our proposal is consistent with the existing rules and limitations under the Eurosystem
and European institutions.
The crisis of the Eurosystem
Even
prior to the creation of the euro, several highly reputed economists had noted that
a European single currency for economies featuring different competitiveness,
productivity levels, and inflation dynamics would hardly serve as an engine of
growth for all countries in the area in the absence of strong policy
cooperation at the European level. Regrettably, their predictions have become
reality.
The
single currency system divides the European countries, rather than linking them
together. Since the breakout of the global financial crisis in 2007-08, the
single currency has acted more as a brake to the growth of the Eurozone and its
individual member countries than as a catalyst for regional development. With a
fixed exchange rate, and absent a regional fiscal policy as well as other
adjustment mechanisms capable to absorb idiosyncratic shocks, the single
currency has proved inadequate to match the growth needs of each member
country. Intra-regional trade and financial imbalances and high and still
rising public debt have been the necessary consequences.
Due
to the intrinsic rigidities of the single currency, creditor countries – especially
Germany – defend the adoption of contractionary policies by debtor countries
such as Italy, France and Spain as well as other countries of Southern Europe. In
order to ensure full recovery of their credits, the former have imposed
austerity measures on the latter, including drastic labor cost cuts, severe reductions
of welfare entitlements, and punitive tax hikes. Public debts denominated in a
currency that individual countries do not control autonomously – and which de
facto represents a foreign currency for them – force governments to undertake pro-cyclical
policies. And the economies that are less competitive enter a crisis spiral, inevitably
dragging along the so-called “virtuous” countries as well. Instead of
facilitating convergence among the 18 Eurozone members, the euro exacerbates
their differences and exasperates the reasons for conflict.
The
Eurozone, and especially the Mediterranean countries, find themselves in a
dramatic situation: either their economies stagnate or, worse, they fall into
depression as consumption and investment (both public and private)
progressively shrink. The ECB tries to give oxygen to the monetary system, yet
banks throughout the area hold liquidity and refrain from lending it to the
economy, most notably small and medium size enterprises. Unemployment and job
precariousness grow spectacularly as a result, and territorial and social
disparities widen.
It
seems like Europe has forgotten its founding objectives of full employment,
sustainable development, and well being for all its citizens: rather, the
official priority of the EU institutions aims exclusively at improving the
external competitiveness of each country via austerity measures and “structural
reforms”. However, addressing competitiveness through structural reforms takes long
and requires resources. Also, austerity has proven to be a total failing and has
run even counter to the very objectives it was intended to pursue: it is not
just a coincidence that, under austerity, public debts in the most vulnerable
economies have kept growing bigger. The attempt to apply the Fiscal Compact,
with additional doses of fiscal adjustment every year for many years to come, would
make things even worse.
The
crisis is jeopardizing the survival of any integration design. The European
economy is sick and risks to infect the world economy. Proposals to mutualize
debts (through the so called “Eurobonds”) or to create a federal fund to
alleviate the social costs of the crisis appear to be politically unfeasible,
due to the firm opposition from Northern European countries. In such a bleak
context, different scenarios are possible: the continuation of a prolonged
phase of stagnation or even recession and depression; the restructuring of the
debts of the Mediterranean countries; or the disorderly breakup of the
Eurozone, with some countries being forced to exit the monetary union and the
ruinous fall of the Eurosystem following suit.
Given
the circumstances, it is highly unlikely that negotiating wider margins of
fiscal flexibility with Brussels and Berlin would be sufficient for the crisis-hit
countries to revamp domestic demand, since this would not address the real
issues affecting the Eurozone. Besides, for countries like Italy, greater
flexibility, even if granted, would imply even larger levels of indebtedness.
A
number of economists propose abandoning the single currency as a way for crisis-hit
economies to avoid being further subjected to penalizing conditions. Yet returning
from the euro to domestic currencies would be far more problematic than exiting
a semi-fixed exchange rate system (such as the old European Monetary System). A
disorderly breakup of the euro – the second world reserve currency – would
likely produce economic and geopolitical shocks of incalculable consequences.
How
then to resolve such an ominous crisis that Europe has inflicted upon herself? It
is by now clear that the founding treaties of the Eurosystem will have to be
revised radically, but this requires political will and time, neither of which
is currently available. Facing the crisis requires that, even within the
context of the euro, every national state urgently take sovereign initiatives to
revitalize domestic demand, output and employment. Unlike the unelected EU
executive bodies, the democratically elected governments of the European
countries have the right and the obligation to make the future of their
citizens a better one and to implement courageous reforms to preserve the
prosperity of their national communities. Citizens rightly expect their elected
governments to enact growth-enhancing nationally-oriented policy measures
without being imposed excessive and unjustifiable constraints by other
countries and without asking for concessions.
The Tax Credit Certificate Proposal
Urgent
and effective measures are necessary. Our proposal features a feasible
alternative option to other solutions that appear to be more complex and less
practicable.
We
propose that the crisis-hit countries of the Eurozone issue deferred Tax Credit
Certificates and allocate them at no charge to employed, self-employed and
unemployed workers as well as to enterprises. After two years from their
issuance, the TCC would be used to pay all financial obligations to public
administrations (taxes, social contributions, fines, etc.). Governments would
issue TCC in the order of 5% of GDP for the first year and would increase their
issuance in subsequent years, if necessary, up to an annual ceiling of 10% of
GDP and until recovery in output and employment is observed.
The
TCC solution is legally sound and uncontestable at the EU level and from the
European monetary authorities: while the ECB is the exclusive issuer of the
euro, each sovereign state retains the legal right to offer fiscal rebates, such
as the TCC. Moreover, while the ECB has the monopoly over the single
currency, it does not exercise control over the creation of “quasi” money
instruments (such as, for instance bank deposits, government bonds, etc.). As the
TCC is a financial instrument with a “quasi” monetary nature (it is a non-debt
store of value that can be transformed into legal tender), it would not be
subject to the ECB monopoly.
The
new instrument issued by the state for the purpose of lowering the fiscal burden
would directly flow into the pockets of people without raising new debt. TCC
issuance would counteract the austerity imposed by the EU and resolve the
liquidity scarcity problem that is currently affecting the economy of the
weakest countries in the Eurozone, which the banking system has proven unable
to address: while largely refinanced by the ECB, banks have mostly invested the
new funds available in financial assets while continuing to limit the extension
of credit to the real economy.
Based
on its nature of legal tender to settle obligations to the state, the TCC would
be exchanged for euros in the financial market similarly to any zero-coupon
government bond. It could also be accepted as a means of payment (to be used,
for instance, in combination with credit or debit cards). The TCC would become
a new financial product, which the state would commit to issuing on a permanent
basis. Additional amounts of TCC issues would vary over time depending on the
economy’s response. This would contribute to improving expectations and would
induce people to consume a large share of their TCC-generated income. A
virtuous circle would emerge with multiplier effects on demand and output.
The advantages of the new quasi-money
Large
and persistent allocations of TCC would stimulate demand and help close the
output gap, while having a limited effect on inflation and yet countering the risk
of chronic deflation and reducing public debt burdens.
As a result of the income
multiplier effect, the fiscal revenue shortfalls caused by the TCC deferred tax
rebates would be offset by the increased fiscal revenues driven by GDP growth. In fact, with the
current real resource slack and interest rates close to zero, the income
multiplier would be greater than one*. GDP
and employment would grow rapidly.
As a
consequence of revived growth, state budget deficits would be reduced and
public debts would become better sustainable. Moreover, the share of TCC
allocated to enterprises in proportion to their labor cost would drastically lower
production costs. This would replicate the effects of currency devaluation: it
would trigger export growth and offset the impact that the resumption of GDP
growth would have on the trade balance via larger imports.
Taking
Italy as an example, assume that over 2015-16 a TCC issue of €70bn is allocated
to employees in inverse proportion to their taxable income, and that €80bn are
similarly allocated to private-sector employers. The latter allocation would
cut labor cost by 18%, broadly equivalent to Italy’s competitiveness gap
vis-à-vis Germany. Some additional €50bn TCC could be used further stimulate demand,
for instance, through new public investment, guaranteed income schemes, support
to private-sector initiatives in depressed areas, and the like. The idea would
be to give preference to easy-to-implement social utility projects.
At operating speed, an annual issuance of €200bn could
be effected, which would bring the stock of circulating TCC to €400bn (taking
into account the annual reflow of deferred TCC used to pay taxes). This amount would
compare to Italy’s total fiscal revenues of €800bn. Assuming an income multiplier of 1.3*, GDP would recover
by 15% over three years, with a 5-point drop in unemployment, and the trade
balance holding in substantial equilibrium. The public deficit – defined as the
difference between fiscal revenues and expenditures in euros – would be reduced
to zero already from end-2015, and public debt would start falling in percent
of GDP.
Exiting the debt trap with the Tax-Backed Bonds
While
the TCC would allow an economy to exit the “liquidity trap”, largely indebted
countries also need to escape the “debt trap”. From the 1980s onwards, and
certainly in preparation for the entry in the monetary union, central banks in
many European countries have stopped issuing money to purchase public debt
obligations in the primary market. Public deficits could only be covered
through new debt issuances, and interest rates started to rise as a result. Attracted
by high returns, institutional investors absorbed an increasing share of the
new debts. Eventually, the corresponding
debt burdens subjected taxpayers to increasing levels of fiscal pressure, which
in some cases has become unsustainable. Reducing such pressure is now a
priority, but this should not be achieved at the expense of social welfare,
especially where this is already lower than EU average. The objective must be one
of reducing the outstanding debt and the interest payments on it.
To
this purpose, in addition to introducing TCC, governments should refinance their
maturing debt obligations with Tax-Backed Bonds (TBB), which (like the TCC) would not be reimbursed at maturity with euro but would
be accepted by the state for tax payments. In
practice, a public debt-swap offer could be launched at the same time that TCC
are issued whereby every government bond would be exchanged for a TBB carrying a longer
maturity and a premium on the original bond’s interest rate. The debt-swap
option would remain open for all the residual life of the outstanding public
debt. The premium on rates is intended to cause a large proportion of the
existing debt to be tendered, notwithstanding the longer maturity. It should be
noticed that TBB could be more attractive than “traditional” bonds regardless
of the premium, as no default risk is associated with them.
This
conversion would i) prevent market turbulences from affecting bond prices, and
ii) reduce the level of the “real” public debt (that is, debt obligations to be
repaid in euro), transforming it in “national deferred money”. Such process
would amount to “renationalizing” the debt; it would substantially reduce the
risk of default on sovereign debts, and would make the financial stability of
largely indebted countries less dependent on the erratic mood of international capital
markets.
The
TBB will become increasingly attractive as the supply of traditional government
bonds decreases. Italian institutional investors need a “domestic” liquidity
management instrument, especially in view of an overall reduction in traditional
bond offers. In particular, such entities as banks and insurance companies have
large liquidity needs not just to pay their own taxes, but also to make
payments of taxes and social contributions on behalf of their employees.
Conclusions
The proposed issuance of TCC
and TBB does not involve default risk for the issuers: issuing governments
commit to accepting them for tax payments, but are under no obligation to
reimburse them at future dates.
The issuance of TCC aims at
revamping demand, output and employment. The resulting recovery of GDP raises
the fiscal revenues needed to compensate for the deferred tax rebates made
possible by the TCC, and thus keeps euro expenses and incomes on balance. In
turn, the TBB accelerate the reduction of gross public debt (to be reimbursed
in euro) as a ratio of GDP ratio.
The possibility becomes real
that the debt/GDP ratio may rapidly trend downward toward the 60% Fiscal
Compact objective, which would otherwise remain totally unrealistic. The protraction
of austerity measures would in fact condemn the weak economies of the Eurozone
to permanent stagnation or depression, and inhibit the objective of debt
consolidation.
We
believe that the creation by sovereign states of quasi-money national instruments
can provide weak countries with a feasible way out of economic depression. The economies
of the Eurozone that have been hit by the crisis most badly may exit the tunnel
of depression and debt by putting their own act together, without asking competitor
countries to inflate their economies, worsen their trade balance, or provide
financial aid.
Notwithstanding
the difficulties that our proposal may raise, we believe it offers a concrete
way out of the current dramatic situation avoiding traumatic solutions, which
could inflict large losses to workers, savers, firms and financial institutions.
We
believe that this can be the way to set up the best conditions for Europe to survive the current serious crisis and lay
down the bases for a different monetary system, which would finally be stable,
sustainable and conducive to economic well being and full employment.
*
Note on the Income Multiplier
Recent
studies (some of them reported below) provide a broad range of estimates of the
income multiplier. Our proposal is based on the assumption that the income
multiplier is greater than 1. Specifically, we have conservatively assumed a
value of 1.3, based on a number of considerations:
- The demand stimulus following the issuance of TCC
would be intense and persistent; it would taper only when a strong
response from output and employment would be observed
- TCC would be allocated to individuals featuring a
higher propensity to consume
- Interest rates are low and will likely remain so
due to the accommodative monetary policy stance from the ECB
- Leakage effects from demand through the external
channel (i.e., higher imports from abroad) would be offset by the export
growth made possible by competitiveness gains following the reduction in
labor costs
- The negative impact that the issuances of TCC
might have on the value of the multiplier if they were to cause higher
interest rate spreads on public debt would be neutralized by the issuance
of TBB, which would stabilize the price of debt.
Auerbach
A and Y Gorodnichenko, Measuring the Output Responses to Fiscal Policies,
American Economic Journal, 2012
Blanchard
O and D Leigh, Growth Forecast Errors and Fiscal Multipliers, IMF, January 2013
Eggertsson
G and P Krugman, Debt, Deleveraging and the Liquidity Trap, Quarterly Journal
of Economica, 2012
Eichengreen
B and K H O’Rourke, Gauging the Multiplier: Lessons from History, VoxEu, 23
October 2012
Locarno
A, A Notarpietro and M Pisani, Sovereign Risk, Monetary Policy and Fiscal
Multipliers: A Structural Model-Based Assessment, Temi di discussione N. 943,
Banca d’Italia, November 2013